Penelitian Teknologi Informasi (TI) cukup berbeda dengan penelitian di bidang sosial kemasyarakatan. Umumnya penelitian TI tidak mempunyai metodelogi yang jelas, tidak ada pembuatan kuesioner, tidak ada pengolahan data dan hanya sedikit yang mencakup analisa hasil. Penelitian di bidang TI, sepanjang yang pernah saya amati, bisa mencakup beberapa jenis penelitian termasuk:
Penelitian Murni TI: Penelitian jenis ini merupakan penelitian yang berusaha memecahkan permasalahan-permasalahan yang muncul terkait bidang TI dengan mencari solusi-solusi yang bersifat fundamental. Umumnya penelitian ini banyak berkecimpung mempelajari teori-teori yang ada untuk dapat mengembangkan teori-teori fundamental terkait lainnya. Beberapa penelitian yang bisa termasuk di dalam cakupan ini antara lain pengembangan:
Metodologi pengembangan sistem informasi
Metodologi pembuatan data warehouse
Metode-metode data mining/soft-computing
Konsep jaringan
Metode searching
Teori Optimasi
Metode Pemilihan Variabel
Sistem keamanan jaringan
Metode enkripsi dekripsi
Bahasa pemrograman
Metode penyimpan data
Metode pengolahan citra
Metode pengenalan pola
Among others
Penelitian Terapan TI: Penelitian terapan di bidang TI lebih mengacu pada penelitian yang memanfaatkan teori atau metode, yang telah dikembangkan orang lain dalam cakupan penelitian murni TI, di dalam pengembangan penelitian lanjutan. Beberapa penelitian yang bisa dimasukkan di dalam cakupan penelitian ini antara lain pengembangan:
Sistem kontrol berbasis soft-computing
Hardware yang menerapkan metode penyimpanan data baru
Metode analisa kedokteran berbasis soft-computing
Penelitian yang membandingkan antara teori/metode
Sistem operasi yang berbasis open source
Sistem database dengan sistem indexing data baru
Metode peningkatan efektifitas jaringan berbasis data mining
Sistem pencarian dengan metode searching baru
Word processing dengan metode spell checker baru
Sistem database dengan metode penyimpan data baru
Aplikasi pengolahan citra dengan metode pengolahan baru
Aplikasi pemodelan data yang mengakomodasi metode baru
Program-program (DLL atau JSP) untuk metode tertentu
Bioinformatics dan Biomedik
Penerapan Metode TI di Bidang Lain (Ekonomi, Sosial dll)
Among others
Penelitian Pengembangan Sistem: Sistem yang dimaksud di sini merefer pada sistem yang dapat dipergunakan langsung oleh pengguna seperti sistem informasi dan sistem jaringan. Penelitian jenis ini umumnya berusaha menerapkan berbagai teori atau metode yang telah dikembangkan baik dalam cakupan penelitian murni maupun penelitian terapan seperti sistem database, bahasa pemrograman, konsep jaringan dan lain-lain. Penelitian yang tercakup umumnya mencakup pengembangan sistem untuk tujuan perorangan/komunitas tertentu seperti pengembangan:
Sistem informasi keuangan
Sistem pakar
Sistem pendukung keputusan
Sistem data warehouse
Sistem digital library
Sistem mobile dictionary
Sistem jaringan berbasis open source
Among others
Dibandingkan dengan penelitian murni dan terapan bidang TI, penelitian jenis ini sekarang ini kelihatannya masih lebih banyak diminati oleh mahasiswa TI Indonesia dalam proses penyelesaian kegiatan belajar mereka. Penelitian jenis ini juga sudah jelas tata cara pelaksanaannya, karena metodologi pengembangan sistem umumnya sudah pernah diusulkan dalam tahapan penelitian murni.
Penelitian Terkait Penggunaan dan Manajemen TI: Belakangan ini, dengan berkembangnya penerapan TI di masyarakat, keilmuan tentang efektivitas penggunaan dan keilmuan di bidang manajemen TI juga semakin berkembang. Penelitian terkait dengan keilmuan-keilmuan tersebut juga banyak dilakukan. Walaupun masih dalam ruang lingkup TI, penelitian jenis ini mungkin lebih banyak dikaitkan dengan penelitian bidang sosial kemasyarakatan, karena yang menjadi objek penelitian biasanya adalah user/pengguna TI, administrator TI atau provider TI. Sehingga kemungkinan untuk menerapkan metodologi penelitian seperti halnya penelitian di bidang sosial kemasyarakatan sangat besar.
Mungkin ada yang masih memperdebatkan apakah kegiatan pengembangan sistem termasuk sebagai suatu kegiatan penelitian atau tidak. Kalau dilihat dari definisi dari kata penelitian (research) itu sendiri yaitu:
Research is a human activity based on intellectual investigation and is aimed at discovering, interpreting, and revising human knowledge on different aspects of the world. Research can use the scientific method, but need not do so.(sumber: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research)
kegiatan penelitian pada hakekatnya mempunyai tujuan untuk menemukan, menginterpretasikan ataupun merevisi pengetahuan yang ada di masyarakat. Sehingga, penelitian yang melibatkan kegiatan pengembangan sistem, karena tidak mencakup unsur menemukan, menginterpretasikan ataupun merevisi pengetahuan masyarakat, memang masih bisa menjadi bahan perdebatan apakah kegiatan tersebut bisa dimasukkan ke dalam kegiatan penelitian bidang TI atau tidak.
Program pemanfaatan dan pengembangan Infrastruktur Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi (TIK) pada Departemen Pendidikan Nasional bukan sebuah program yang disusun “tiba masa tiba akal”, melainkan sebuah program yang telah dirintis dan dijalankan dalam beberapa tahap. Setiap tahapan disusun dengan mempertimbangkan kondisi pada saat itu dan keberlanjutannya pada masa-masa selanjutnya. Juga disusun hal-hal yang bersifat pendukung agar setiap program dapat berfungsi dan berjalan secara maksimal. Secara umum, program TIK di Depdiknas dimulai pada tahun 1999 melalui program Jaringan Internet (Jarnet), yang selanjutnya secara berturut-turut dikembangkan program Jaringan Informasi Sekolah (JIS), Wide Area Network (WAN) Kota, Information and Communication Technology Center (ICT Center), Jejaring Pendidikan Nasional (Jardiknas), dan untuk ke depan akan dikembangkan South East Asia Education Network (SEA EduNet).Seluruh program disusun dengan target yang jelas dan berkesinambungan, sehingga pengembangan infrastruktur teknologi informasi dan komunikasi di Indonesia dapat menjadi bagian dari infratruktur dunia. Infrastruktur ini juga dibarengi dengan pengembangan SDM yang sesuai, sehingga perangkat yang dikembangkan tidak menjadi tumpukan barang bekas yang tanpa makna. Diharapkan ke depan, pengembangan infratruktur tidak berhenti sampai pada level Asia Tenggara, tetapi mampu diperluas hingga ke level Asia dan Dunia. Hal ini akan menjadikan Indonesia sejajar dengan bangsa-bangsa lain dalam pemanfaatan dan pengembangan infrastruktur telkonologi informasi dan komunikasi dalam dunia pendidikan.
1. PENDAHULUAN
Bangsa Indonesia adalah bangsa yang besar, baik dari segi jumlah penduduk, luas wilayah, kekayaan alam dan sumber daya yang dimiliki.
Namun, kebesaran ini juga membawa beberapa tantangan di dalam mengelola seluruh sumberdaya yang ada dan untuk membawa negara ini semakin maju. Salah satu contoh tantangan adalah kondisi geografis negara Indonesia yang membentang dari Barat ke Timur, yang terdiri atas 14.000 pulau besar dan kecil serta diselingi dengan laut dan selat.
Kondisi ini pasti menyulitkan pelaksanaan beberapa program pemerintah yang membutuhkan kecepatan dan keluasan. Salah satu program utama yang mengalami tantangan ini adalah dunia pendidikan.
Sesuai dengan amanat Undang-Undang Dasar 1945, maka pendidikan adalah hak mutlak bagi warganegara Indonesia, dimana menjadi kewajiban bagi pemerintah untuk mewujudkan hal tersebut.
Berbagai daya dan upaya dikerahkan untuk memenuhi amat tersebut dan melibatkan seluruh alat yang dapat dimanfaatkan, termasuk pemanfaatan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi (TIK).
Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi yang dikembangkan merupakan sebuah alat di dalam mencapai tujuan pedidikan, yaitu mencerdaskan anak bangsa, dimana di dalam pengembangannya terbagi atas beberapa hal, yaitu infrastruktur, SDM dan konten. Ketiga hal tersebut dilaksanakan secara paralel, karena satu sama lain harus saling mendukung untuk dapat menjadi sebuah alat yang lengkap untuk dimanfaatkan di dalam pencerdasan anak bangsa.
2. PEMBAHASAN
Khusus di Departemen Pendidikan Nasional, perkembangan infrastruktur, SDM dan konten di dalam Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi telah dimulai sejak abad 19 dan mengalami akselerasi yang cukup tinggi pada awal abad 20, yaitu pada tahun 1999 hingga saat ini.
Beberapa program pengembangan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi khususnya Infrasruktur adalah:
Jaringan Internet (Jarnet)
Jaringan Informasi Sekolah (JIS)
Wide Area Network Kota (WAN Kota)
Information and Communication Technology Center (ICT Center)
Indonesia Higher Education Network (Inherent)
Jejaring Pendidikan Nasional (Jardiknas)
South East Asian Education Network (SEA EduNet)
2.1 Jaringan Internet (2000)
Sebelum tahun 1999 sebenarnya secara parsial Departemen Pendidikan Nasional telah banyak melaksanakan kegiatan-kegiatan maupun menjalankan program yang berhubungan dengan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi (TIK), utamanya untuk sarana komunikasi antar institusi dan otomatisasi pendataan. Beberapa diantaranya adalah pembuatan mailing list untuk komunikasi langsung antara pusat dengan daerah, menggalakkan pembuatan web site bagi sekolah untuk penyebaran informasi bagi sekolah tersebut serta penyusunan berbagai program pendataan berbasis TIK.
Namun, untuk pengembangan infrastruktur secara nasional dan dalam jumlah besar dilaksanakan oleh Direktorat Pendidikan Menengah Kejuruan (Dikmenjur) pada tahun 2000 dalam sebuah program yang disebut dengan Jaringan Internet atau Jarnet.
Latar belakang program ini adalah untuk mendukung pemercepatan internetisasi sekolah-sekolah di Indonesia khususnya pada Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan atau SMK. Hal ini karena SMK mulai diwajibkan untuk memiliki alamat email dan juga diminta untuk memiliki web site untuk sarana promosi sekolah masing-masing. Hal ini ditandai dengan perkembangan mailing list Dikmenjur yang pada awalnya hanya memiliki 2 orang anggota dan saat ini telah memiliki 5700 anggota dengan rata-rata komunikasi sebesar 600 email per-bulan.
Tujuan dari program ini adalah:
Mempercepat pelaksanaan Internetisasi di SMK Negeri dan Swasta.
Meningkatkan komunitas antar SMK.
Mengoptimalkan penggunaan sarana dan prasarana yang dimiliki.
Menyediakan sarana mendapatkan informasi terkini dan media pembelajaran bagi warga sekolah dan masyarakat umum.
Menyediakan media promosi sekolah dalam rangka peningkatan minat/animo masyarakat terhadap SMK.
Menjadikan jarnet bagian dari unit produksi agar mengembangkan warnet di sekolah.
Dengan demikian bantuan Jarnet di sekolah selain untuk memperkenalkan pemanfaatan teknologi informasi kepada segenap warga sekolah, juga untuk memberi dorongan agar sekolah dapat meningkatkan kinerjanya dengan mendayagunakan komputer yang ada, serta memperkenalkan Internet sebagai sarana mencari informasi dan sarana komunikasi yang efektif dan efisien.
Bantuan Jarnet ini dimaksudkan agar digunakan untuk pengadaan peralatan dan pelatihan pemasangan jaringan lokal (LAN) di sekolah.
Program pengembangan Jaringan Internet diperuntukkan bagi semua SMK Negeri/ Swasta di Kabupaten/Kota. Sampai dengan tahun 2003 terdapat 744 SMK yang sudah memiliki jaringan Internet melalui program Jarnet ini.
2.2 Jaringan Informasi Sekolah (2001 - 2002)
Senyampang dengan mulai menjamurnya kebutuhan terhadap internet yang diakibatkan oleh program Jarnet, maka kebutuhan infrastruktur dan sarana komunikasi juga semakin meningkat. Khusus mengenai infrastruktur, sebagian besar sekolah yang ada di kabupaten dan kota hanya memiliki komputer yang memiliki spesifikasi yang amat rendah. Bahkan banyak yang tidak memiliki harddisk.
Namun, karena minat yang amat tinggi, mereka juga berkeinginan untuk memiliki jaringan yang terhubung dengan internet.
Pada tahun 2001, pengembangan program cloning sedang marak dimana-mana, yaitu memanfaatkan 1 komputer yang memiliki kapasitas besar dan dibagi ke komputer-komputer lainnya melalui sistem jaringan. Sehingga sekolah tidak perlu membeli banyak komputer lagi, namun cukup membeli 1 komputer yang berkapasitas besar. Namun, pengetahuan ini masih amat terbatas, karena dibeberapa tempat menjadi sebuah lahan bisnis yang menggiurkan dan ditawarkan dengan harga yang cukup tinggi.
Oleh Depdiknas, program ini kemudian dipelajari dan disebarluaskan ke seluruh propinsi agar dapat diterapkan di sekolah-sekolah.
Disisi lain, perkembangan TIK yang cukup pesat membutuhkan SDM yang handal, juga membutuhkan sarana komunikasi dan diskusi bagi penggiat TIK di satu daerah, agar para guru yang memiliki hobi yang sama dapat berkumpul secara teratur setiap bulan untuk saling berbagi informasi dan pengetahuan di dalam bidang TIK. Untuk berkumpul ini juga dibutuhkan sebuah lokasi yang representatif, yang memiliki sarana dan prasarana dalam bidang TIK serta dapat dijadikan sebuah sekretariat.
Dengan dasar inilah, Depdiknas pusat mencoba untuk memacu hal tersebut dengan “memberikan kail” berupa bantuan untuk pelatihan awal dan merangsang pembentukan sekretariat TIK di masing-masing kabupaten/kota.
Program inilah yang disebut dengan Jaringan Informasi Sekolah atau disingkat JIS.
Mengapa disebut dengan Jaringan Informasi Sekolah ? Karena diharapkan fungsi utama dari prgoram ini adalah untuk menjaring seluruh sekolah di dalam satu wilayah agar saling berbagi informasi, khususnya dalam bidang Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi.
Peserta JIS ini tidak terbatas kepada SMK saja, namun diikuti oleh seluruh SLTA di daerah tersebut, SLTP dan beberapa SD. Syarat utama untuk ikut di dalam JIS adalah memiliki minat terhadap TIK
Hasil yang diharapkan dari program ini adalah:
Terbentuknya Jaringan Informasi Sekolah di Kabupaten/Kota
Terbentuknya Jaringan Lokal (Local Area Network) di masing-masing sekolah yang menjadi peserta pelatihan
Tersosialisasikannya informasi mengenai program cloning PC, sehingga bagi sekolah yang memiliki komputer dengan spesifikasi rendah, tetap dapat dimanfaatkan untuk aplikasi perkantoran atau untuk internet
Hingga tahun 2003, telah terbentuk 154 JIS di seluruh Indonesia. Ini merupakan embrio pengembangan SDM untuk program TIK yang sejak program ini digulirkan menjadi lebih cepat lagi pengembangannya
2.3 Wide Area Notwork (WAN) Kota (2002-2003)
Perkembangan kebutuhan akan TIK sejak bergulirnya program Jarnet dan JIS semakin besar, utamanya kebutuhan terhadap koneksi internet yang digunakan untuk mempercepat proses pengiriman data dan informasi dari daerah ke pusat serta untuk proses pembelajaran.
Namun disisi lain, harga internet di Indonesia yang masih amat mahal menjadi pemikiran utama dari sekolah-sekolah tersebut. Untuk bisa membiayai operasional sehari-hari saja masih amat sulit, apalagi harus menyisihkan dana setiap bulan untuk biaya internet.
(Gambar 1. Sistem Jaringan WAN Kota)
Berdasarkan pemikiran tersebut, maka dikembangkanlah program WAN Kota, yang mencoba menghubungkan jaringan lokal di semua sekolah yang berada pada satu wilayah dan kemudian memasang koeksi internet pada salah satu simpul di daerah tersebut. Hal ini akan mengakibatkan biaya internet yang seharusnya hanya diatnggung oleh satu sekolah menjadi tanggungan bersama. Ini akan meringankan dan memudahkan sekolah-sekolah tersebut untuk turut serta menikmati koneksi internet.
Secara umum, fungsi dan manfaat program WAN Kota adalah:
wahana berbagi (sharing) sumber daya data, informasi, dan program pendidikan;
media komunikasi berbasis web atau multimedia antar lembaga pendidikan yang dibangun, dikelola, dan dikembangkan secar mandiri, kolektif, dan sistematis oleh semua lembaga pendidikan yang terlibat di dalam jejaring tersebut;
infrastruktur pemelajaran jarak jauh (e-learning) dan pelayanan pemerintahan (e-government);
sumber informasi dan komunikasi antar sekolah (SLTP, SMU dan SMK);
pusat penyimpanan (server) modul pembelajaran;
pusat pelatihan teknologi informasi dan komunikasi bagi masyarakat sekitarnya;
digital library (perpustakaan berbasis komputer) yang dapat diakses semua sekolah di Kabupaten/Kota.
Secara umum, teknologi yang digunakan untuk program WAN Kota ini adalah teknologi Wireless IEEE 801.11 a/b/g yang memanfaatkan frekwensi 2,4 Ghz. Dengan penggunakan frekwensi yang free inilah, maka setiap sekolah hanya bermodalkan satu set antena Grid Parabolic ataupun menggunakan antena kaleng dan wajanbolic yang dirakit sendiri sudah dapat menikmati koneksi internet yag murah.
Dengan program ini, maka bermunculan juga sentra-sentra perakitan perangkat 2,4 Ghz di beberapa tempat, sehingga menggerakkan indutri kecil di daerah tersebut. Juga di beberapa lokasi, program ini disandingkan dengan RT/RW Net, sehingga pengguna internet tidak terbatas pada sekolah saja, melainkan juga masyarakat umum.
Hingga tahun 2003, telah terbentuk 31 WAN Kota di Indonesia.
2.4 ICT Center (2004 - 2006)
Program WAN Kota yang telah dikembangkan pada tahun 2002 hingga tahun 2003 akhirnya dirasakan hanya menitikberatkan kepada aspek perangkat keras dan jaringan saja, sedangkan pengembangan TIK tidak hanya terdiri atas kedua aspek tersebut. Pengembangan SDM juga hanya berputar kepada institusi yang menjadi lokasi WAN Kota, sehingga mulai dipikirkan untuk memperluas fungsi dan tugas dari WAN Kota menjadi sebuah institusi lain yang mampu menjadi pusat TIK di daerah dan bermanfaat secara luas bagi masyarakat di sekitarnya.
Berdasarkan pemikiran inilah, lahir sebuah program dan institusi dengan nama Information and Communication Technology (ICT) Center yang berfungsi sebagai Pusat Pendidikan, Pelatihan dan Pengembangan Teknologi Informasi dan Komunikasi di Kabupaten/Kota.
Untuk mempersenjatai fungsi tersebut, maka ICT Center dibentuk dengan infrastruktur yang melebihi WAN Kota, karena fungsu utamanya bukan hanya sekedar menghubungkan LAN di da satu wilayah saja, melainkan meluas kepada fungsi Capacity Bulding.
Perangkat yang diberikan kepada masing-masing ICT Center adalah satu set tower dan perangkat server 2,4 Ghz untuk membagi koneksi internet yang dimiliki, satu atau dua paket laboratorium komputer, dan perangkat pendukung jaringan lainnya, seperti VoIP Phone, Router, Switch dan lain-lain. Khusus ICT Center tahun 2005 malah diberikan bantuan koneksi selama 6 bulan melalui VSAT dengan bandwidth 128 Kbps 1:1 dengan ISP Indosat M2.
Berbagai program pelatihan telah dilaksanakan oleh seluruh ICT Center ini, dan sebagian berkolaborasi dengan pemerintah daerah maupun institusi lainnya. Di beberapa tempat, ICT Center malah sudah menjadi sebuah kebutuhan daerah, sehingga pemanfaatan perangkat yang dimiliki tidak hanya dari sekolah itu sendiri namun sudah amat meluas hingga ke masyarakat umum.
Hingga tahun 2008 ini, total ICT Center di seluruh Indonesia adalah 430 Unit
2.5 Inherent (2006 - 2007)
Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Tinggi juga turut menggeliat di dalam pengembangan TIK dan tidak kalah dengan Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah. Sebenarnya, sejak tahun 90-an, sudah banyak perguruan tinggi yang secara parsial maupun kelompok kecil telah mengembangkan infrastruktur TIK di kampus masing-masing. Yang amat terkenal adalah ITB dengan berbagai risetnya untuk bidang internet dan jaringan lokal.
Secara nasional, infrastruktur yang dibangun untuk menghubungkan seluruh perguruan tinggi dibangun pada tahun 2006, dalam bentuk program Indonesian Higher Education Network atau Inherent.
Program INHERENT menghubungkan 32 perguruan tinggi sebagai backbone utama dimana perguruan tinggi lainnya dapat terhubung ke PT backbone tersebut apabila hendak terhubung dalam satu sistem jaringan.
(Gambar 2. Sistem Jaringan INHERENT)
Karena tujuan utama dari sistem ini adalah untuk riset dan pengembangan, maka jalur data yang disiapkan cukup besar, bahkan mencapai 155 Mbps dengan link yang terkecil mencapai 2 Mbps.
2.6 Jejaring Pendidikan Nasional (2006 - sekarang)
Program ICT Center dan WAN Kota yang dibangun hingga tahun 2006 telah berhasil membangun jaringan lokal di dalam masing-masing kabupaten kota, serta telah membentuk komunitas di dalam bidang TIK.
Selanjutnya, untuk menggabungkan seluruh ICT Center, WAN Kota dan Institusi pendidikan lainnya di seluruh Indonesia, pada tahun 2006 dikembangkan program Jejaring Pendidikan Nasional atau Jardiknas.
Untuk memudahkan pengelolaan, Jardiknas dibagi atas 4 zona, yaitu Zona Kantor Dinas dan Institusi, Zona Perguruan Tinggi, Zona Sekolah, dan Zona Personal (Guru dan Siswa)
(Gambar 3. Sistem Jaringan Jardiknas)
Seluruh lokasi terhubung dengan teknologi MPLS dan dikelola oleh 3 NOC, dimana seluruh NOC dihubungkan dengan link internasional dan IIX sebesar 200 Mbps.
Hingga akhir tahun 2007, telah terhubung 1.014 titik institusi dan 11.825 sekolah dengan Jardiknas.
2.7 SEA EduNet ( 2008 )
Rencana pengembangan ke depan adalah mengintegrasikan jejaring yang telah dibentuk di Indonesia dengan negara-negara tetangga, agar dapat dilaksanakan sharing knowledge dengan lebih intensif. Hal ini bertujuan agar seluruh institusi kita memiliki wawasan yang lebih mengglobal.
Salah satu teknologi yang saat ini sedang dijajaki oleh Depdiknas, utamanya oleh institusi Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Open Distance Learning Centre (SEAMOLEC) adalah teknologi multicast, yang menggunakan perangkat parabola untuk downstream dan teresterial untuk upstream.
Teknologi ini amat sesuai dengan kondisi geografis di Indonesia, yang bergunung-gunung dan masih sulit dijangkau secara merata dengan koneksi kabel.
(Gambar 4. Sistem Jaringan SEA EduNet)
Diharapkan pada tahun 2008, sudah dapat diujicobakan pada seluruh Propinsi di Indonesia.
3. PENUTUP
3.1 Kesimpulan
Pengembangan Infrastruktur TIK pada Departemen Pendidikan Nasonal dilakukan secara bertahap dan berjenjang sesuai dengan perkembangan teknologi dan kebutuhan lapangan. Dengan pengembangan infrastruktur ini maka pengelolaan pendidikan di Indonesia dapat lebih efektif dan efisien.
3.2 Rekomendasi
Integarasi sistem Jaringan yang saat ini telah dibangun dengan memanfaatkan dana rakyat harus terus dijaga, utamanya didalam setiap pengembangan program ke depan, agar tidak terkesan “membongkar pondasi” setiap ada kebijakan yang baru. Selain itu, pengembangan konten yang menjadi alat transportasi yang memanfaatkan infrastruktur ini harus lebih diperkaya, sehingga pemanfaatannya menjadi lebih optimal.
SMP N 1 Denpasar adalah salah satu sekolah bertaraf internasional di Bali, dan sudah tidak asing lagi bagi masyarakat. Sekolah yang beralamat di Jl. Surapati no. 2 Denpasar ini memiliki fasilitas yang lumayan lengkap seperti:
Lab IPA
Lab B. Indonesia
Lab Multimedia dan Lab Komputer
Perpustakaan
Gedung Aula
SMPN 1 Denpasar juga merupakan sekolah tertua yang pernah ada, bahkan tanggal pembangunannya saja tidak diketahui. Sekolah saya ini telah banyak melahirkan siswa-siswi berprestasi dari segi akademik maupun non akademik. Tidak dapat dipungkiri lagi kehebatan siswa-siswa ataupun guru pengajar di SMPN 1. Banyak perjuangan yang perlu dilalui untuk masuk dan bersekolah di sekolah ini. Di sekolah ini terdapat beberapa jenis kelas, yaitu Acceleration, SBI, Bilingual dan Reguler.
Berikut ini juga ada beberapa kelebihan dan kekurangan dari SMP N 1 Denpasar:
#kelebihan# Gurunya ramah tamah, murah senyum , baik (sebagian saja^^), tempat strategis dekat dengan lapangan Puputan Badung, dan makanan di kantin enak.
#kekurangan# Beberapa guru pengajar billingual kurang terlatih bahasa inggrisnya, jadi kadang-kadang ngawur, juga WCnya kotor
Jika ada kelebihan, pastilah ada kekurangannya pula, oleh karena itu, saya sebagai salah satu warga sekolah ini pun berharap agar SMPN 1 Denpasar bisa menjadi lebih baik dan terlihat sempurna dari berbagai macam sudut pandang. Demikianlah cerita saya tentang SMPN 1 Denpasar yang saya banggakan dan saya cintai.
The first devices that resemble modern computers date to the mid-20th century (1940–1945), although the computer concept and various machines similar to computers existed earlier. Early electronic computers were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PC). Modern computers are based on tiny integrated circuits and are millions to billions of times more capable while occupying a fraction of the space. Today, simple computers may be made small enough to fit into a wristwatch and be powered from a watch battery. Personal computers, in various forms, are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as "a computer"; however, the most common form of computer in use today is the embedded computer. Embedded computers are small, simple devices that are used to control other devices — for example, they may be found in machines ranging from fighter aircraft to industrial robots, digital cameras, and children's toys.
The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile and distinguishes them from calculators. The Church–Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a certain minimum capability is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform. Therefore, computers with capability and complexity ranging from that of a personal digital assistant to a supercomputer are all able to perform the same computational tasks given enough time and storage capacity.
History of computing
It is difficult to identify any one device as the earliest computer, partly because the term "computer" has been subject to varying interpretations over time. Originally, the term "computer" referred to a person who performed numerical calculations (a human computer), often with the aid of a mechanical
The history of the modern computer begins with two separate technologies - that of automated calculation and that of programmability.
Examples of early mechanical calculating devices included the abacus, the slide rule and arguably the astrolabe and the Antikythera mechanism (which dates from about 150-100 BC). Hero of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD) built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums that might be considered to be a means of deciding which parts of the mechanism performed which actions and when. This is the essence of programmability.
The end of the Middle Ages saw a re-invigoration of European mathematics and engineering, and Wilhelm Schickard's 1623 device was the first of a number of mechanical calculators constructed by European engineers. However, none of those devices fit the modern definition of a computer because they could not be programmed.
In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard made an improvement to the textile loom that used a series of punched paper cards as a template to allow his loom to weave intricate patterns automatically. The resulting Jacquard loom was an important step in the development of computers because the use of punched cards to define woven patterns can be viewed as an early, albeit limited, form of programmability.
It was the fusion of automatic calculation with programmability that produced the first recognizable computers. In 1837, Charles Babbage was the first to conceptualize and design a fully programmable mechanical computer that he called "The Analytical Engine". Due to limited finances, and an inability to resist tinkering with the design, Babbage never actually built his Analytical Engine.
During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computers, which used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation. However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers.
A succession of steadily more powerful and flexible computing devices were constructed in the 1930s and 1940s, gradually adding the key features that are seen in modern computers. The use of digital electronics (largely invented by Claude Shannon in 1937) and more flexible programmability were vitally important steps, but defining one point along this road as "the first digital electronic computer" is difficult (Shannon 1940). Notable achievements include:
Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines". The Z3 (1941) was the first working machine featuring binary arithmetic, including floating point arithmetic and a measure of programmability. In 1998 the Z3 was proved to be Turing complete, therefore being the world's first operational computer.
The secret British Colossus computers (1943)[8], which had limited programmability but demonstrated that a device using thousands of tubes could be reasonably reliable and electronically reprogrammable. It was used for breaking German wartime codes.
The Harvard Mark I (1944), a large-scale electromechanical computer with limited programmability.
Several developers of ENIAC, recognizing its flaws, came up with a far more flexible and elegant design, which came to be known as the "stored program architecture" or von Neumann architecture. This design was first formally described by John von Neumann in the paper First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, distributed in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture commenced around this time, the first of these being completed in Great Britain. The first to be demonstrated working was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or "Baby"), while the EDSAC, completed a year after SSEM, was the first practical implementation of the stored program design. Shortly thereafter, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paper—EDVAC—was completed but did not see full-time use for an additional two years.
Nearly all modern computers implement some form of the stored-program architecture, making it the single trait by which the word "computer" is now defined. While the technologies used in computers have changed dramatically since the first electronic, general-purpose computers of the 1940s, most still use the von Neumann architecture.
Computers that used vacuum tubes as their electronic elements were in use throughout the 1950s. Vacuum tube electronics were largely replaced in the 1960s by transistor-based electronics, which are smaller, faster, cheaper to produce, require less power, and are more reliable. In the 1970s, integrated circuit technology and the subsequent creation of microprocessors, such as the Intel 4004, further decreased size and cost and further increased speed and reliability of computers. By the 1980s, computers became sufficiently small and cheap to replace simple mechanical controls in domestic appliances such as washing machines. The 1980s also witnessed home computers and the now ubiquitous personal computer. With the evolution of the Internet, personal computers are becoming as common as the television and the telephone in the household.
Stored program architecture
The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be programmed. That is to say that a list of instructions (the program) can be given to the computer and it will store them and carry them out at some time in the future.
In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc. These instructions are read from the computer's memory and are generally carried out (executed) in the order they were given. However, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there. These are called "jump" instructions (or branches). Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event. Many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that "remembers" the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction.
Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest. Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met. This is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention.
Comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses. But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1,000 would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time—with a near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions. For example:
mov#0,sum; set sum to 0
mov#1,num; set num to 1
loop:addnum,sum; add num to sum
add#1,num; add 1 to num
cmpnum,#1000; compare num to 1000
bleloop; if num <= 1000, go back to 'loop'
halt; end of program. stop running
Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in about a millionth of a second.
However, computers cannot "think" for themselves in the sense that they only solve proble
ms in exactly the way they are programmed to. An intelligent human faced with the above addition task might soon realize that instead of actually adding up all the numbers one can simply use the equationand arrive at the correct answer (500,500) with little work. In other words, a computer programmed to add up the numbers one by one as in the example above would do exactly that without regard to efficiency or alternative solutions.
Programs
In practical terms, a computer program may run from just a few instructions to many millions of instructions, as in a program for a word processor or a web browser. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second (gigahertz or GHz) and rarely make a mistake over many years of operation. Large computer programs comprising several million instructions may take teams of programmers years to write, thus the probability of the entire program having been written without error is highly unlikely.
Errors in computer programs are called "bugs". Bugs may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases they may cause the program to "hang" - become unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes, or to completely fail or "crash". Otherwise benign bugs may sometimes may be harnessed for malicious intent by an unscrupulous user writing an "exploit" - code designed to take advantage of a bug and disrupt a program's proper execution. Bugs are usually not the fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program's design.
In most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique number (its operation code or opcode for short). The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode, the command to multiply them would have a different opcode and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from—each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer just as if they were numeric data. The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture. In some cases, a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on. This is called the Harvard architecture after the Harvard Mark I computer. Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in CPU caches.
While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers (machine language) and this technique was used with many early computers, it is extremely tedious to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs. Instead, each basic instruction can be given a short name that is indicative of its function and easy to remember—a mnemonic such as ADD, SUB, MULT or JUMP. These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer's assembly language. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand (machine language) is usually done by a computer program called an assembler. Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them (collectively termed low-level programming languages) tend to be unique to a particular type of computer. For instance, an ARM architecture computer (such as may be found in a PDA or a hand-held videogame) cannot understand the machine language of an Intel Pentium or the AMD Athlon 64 computer that might be in a PC.
Though considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and error prone. Therefore, most complicated programs are written in more abstract high-level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the computer programmer more conveniently (and thereby help reduce programmer error). High level languages are usually "compiled" into machine language (or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language) using another computer program called a compiler. Since high level languages are more abstract than assembly language, it is possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles.
The task of developing large software systems is an immense intellectual effort. Producing software with an acceptably high reliability on a predictable schedule and budget has proved historically to be a great challenge; the academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this problem.
How computers work
A general purpose computer has four main sections: the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU), the control unit, the memory, and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O). These parts are interconnected by busses, often made of groups of wires.
The control unit, ALU, registers, and basic I/O (and often other hardware closely linked with these) are collectively known as a central processing unit (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.
Control unit
The control unit (often called a control system or central controller) directs the various components of a computer. It reads and interprets (decodes) instructions in the program one by one. The control system decodes each instruction and turns it into a series of control signals that operate the other parts of the computer. Control systems in advanced computers may change the order of some instructions so as to improve performance.
A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register) that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from.
The control system's function is as follows—note that this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:
Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.
Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of the other systems.
Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input device). The location of this required data is typically stored within the instruction code.
Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete, instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.
Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an output device.
Jump back to step (1).
Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as "jumps" and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of control flow).
It is noticeable that the sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program - and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer that runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.
Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)
The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic.
The set of arithmetic operations that a particular ALU supports may be limited to adding and subtracting or might include multiplying or dividing, trigonometry functions (sine, cosine, etc) and square roots. Some can only operate on whole numbers (integers) whilst others use floating point to represent real numbers—albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other ("is 64 greater than 65?").
Superscalar computers contain multiple ALUs so that they can process several instructions at the same time. Graphics processors and computers with SIMD and MIMD features often provide ALUs that can perform arithmetic on vectors and matrices.
Memory
A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to "put the number 123 into the cell numbered 1357" or to "add the number that is in cell 1357 to the number that is in cell 2468 and put the answer into cell 1595". The information stored in memory may represent practically anything. Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is up to the software to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.
In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits (called a byte). Each byte is able to represent 256 different numbers; either from 0 to 255 or -128 to +127. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two's complement notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in memory as long as it can be somehow represented in numerical form. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.
The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU. Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. Since data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed.
Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties: random access memory or RAM and read-only memory or ROM. RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is pre-loaded with data and software that never changes, so the CPU can only read from it. ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM is erased when the power to the computer is turned off while ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC , the ROM contains a specialized program called the BIOS that orchestrates loading the computer's operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is turned on or reset. In embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the software required to perform the task may be stored in ROM. Software that is stored in ROM is often called firmware because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM by retaining data when turned off but being rewritable like RAM. However, flash memory is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM so its use is restricted to applications where high speeds are not required.
In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories which are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer's part.
Input/output (I/O)
Hard disks are common I/O devices used with computers.
Often, I/O devices are complex computers in their own right with their own CPU and memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics[citation needed]. Modern desktop computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in performing I/O.
Multitasking
While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously. This is achieved by having the computer switch rapidly between running each program in turn. One means by which this is done is with a special signal called an interrupt which can periodically cause the computer to stop executing instructions where it was and do something else instead. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running "at the same time", then the interrupt generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second, causing a program switch each time. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant. This method of multitasking is sometimes termed "time-sharing" since each program is allocated a "slice" of time in turn.
Before the era of cheap computers, the principle use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer.
Seemingly, multitasking would cause a computer that is switching between several programs to run more slowly - in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running. However, most programs spend much of their time waiting for slow input/output devices to complete their tasks. If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a "time slice" until the event it is waiting for has occurred. This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run at the same time without unacceptable speed loss.
Multiprocessing
Some computers may divide their work between one or more separate CPUs, creating a multiprocessing configuration. Traditionally, this technique was utilized only in large and powerful computers such as supercomputers, mainframe computers and servers. However, multiprocessor and multi-core (multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit) personal and laptop computers have become widely available and are beginning to see increased usage in lower-end markets as a result.
Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general purpose computers. They often feature thousands of CPUs, customized high-speed interconnects, and specialized computing hardware. Such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once. Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale simulation, graphics rendering, and cryptography applications, as well as with other so-called "embarrassingly parallel" tasks.
Networking and the Internet
Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the 1950s. The U.S. military's SAGE system was the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems like Sabre.
In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the United States began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. This effort was funded by ARPA (now DARPA), and the computer network that it produced was called the ARPANET. The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved. In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web, combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information. "Wireless" networking, often utilizing mobile phone networks, has meant networking is becoming increasingly ubiquitous even in mobile computing environments.
Further topics
Hardware
The term hardware covers all of those parts of a computer that are tangible objects. Circuits, displays, power supplies, cables, keyboards, printers and mice are all hardware.
Software
Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. When software is stored in hardware that cannot easily be modified (such as BIOSROM in an IBM PC compatible), it is sometimes called "firmware" to indicate that it falls into an uncertain area somewhere between hardware and software.
